1. American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV-TR, 4th edition. Washington DC, American Psychiatric Press, 2000
5. Tsuang MT et al: The harvard twin study of substance abuse: What we have learned. Harv Rev Psychiatry 9(6):267-279, 2001
6. Bibb JA et al: Effects of chronic exposure to
cocaine are regulated by the neuronal protein Cdk5.
Nature 410(6826):376-380, 2001
7. Kalivas PW, Volkow ND: The neural basis of addiction: A pathology of motivation and choice. Am J Psychiatry 162(8):1403-1413, 2005
9. Konzen JP, Levine SR, Garcia JH: Vasospasm and thrombus formation as possible mechanisms of stroke related to alkaloidal
cocaine.
Stroke 26(6):1114-1118, 1995
10. Lange RA, Hillis LD: Cardiovascular complications of
cocaine use.
N Engl J Med 345(5):351-358, 2001
11. Merkel PA et al: Cocaine-associated cerebral vasculitis. Semin Arthritis Rheum 25(3):172-183, 1995
12. Moliterno DJ et al: Influence of intranasal
cocaine on plasma constituents associated with endogenous thrombosis and thrombolysis.
Am J Med 96(6):492-496, 1994
13. Muniz AE, Evans T: Acute gastrointestinal manifestations associated with use of crack. Am J Emerg Med 19(1):61-63, 2001
14. Strickland TL et al: Cerebral perfusion and neuropsychological consequences of chronic
cocaine use.
J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 5(4):419-427, 1993
15. Vongpatanasin W et al:
Cocaine stimulates the human cardiovascular system via a central mechanism of action.
Circulation 100(5):497-502, 1999
16. Cregler LL, Mark H: Medical complications of
cocaine abuse.
N Engl J Med 315(23):1495-1500, 1986
17. Goldfrank LR, Hoffman RS: The cardiovascular effects of
cocaine.
Ann Emerg Med 20(2):165-175, 1991
18. Spivey WH, Euerle B: Neurologic complications of
cocaine abuse.
Ann Emerg Med 19(12):1422-1428, 1990
19. Hoeger PH, Haupt G, Hoelzle E: Acute multifocal skin necrosis: Synergism between invasive streptococcal infection and cocaine-induced tissue ischaemia? Acta Derm Venereol 76(3):239-241, 1996
20. Abidin MR et al: Injection of illicit drugs into the granulation tissue of chronic ulcers. Ann Plast Surg 24(3):268-270, 1990
21. Kircik LH, Wirth P, Pincus SH: Scars on the legs. Cutaneous fibrosis resulting from intracutaneous injection of
cocaine.
Arch Dermatol 128(12):1644, 1647, 1992
22. Feeney CM, Briggs S: Crack hands: A dermatologic effect of smoking crack
cocaine.
Cutis 50(3):193-194, 1992
23. Payne-James JJ, Munro MH, Rowland Payne CM: Pseudosclerodermatous triad of perniosis, pulp atrophy and ‘parrot-beaked’ clawing of the nails—A newly recognized syndrome of chronic crack
cocaine use.
J Forensic Leg Med 14(2):65-71, 2007
24. Woodburn KR, Murie JA: Vascular complications of injecting drug misuse. Br J Surg 83(10):1329-1334, 1996
25. Maxwell TM, Olcott CT, Blaisdell FW: Vascular complications of drug abuse. Arch Surg 105(6):875-882, 1972
26. Saleem TM, et al: Renal infarction: A rare complication of
cocaine abuse.
Am J Emerg Med 19(6):528-529, 2001
27. Novielli KD, Chambers CV: Splenic infarction after
cocaine use.
Ann Intern Med 114(3):251-252, 1991
28. Bellows CF, Raafat AM: The surgical abdomen associated with
cocaine abuse.
J Emerg Med 23(4):383-386, 2002
29. Ellis CN, McAlexander WW: Enterocolitis associated with
cocaine use.
Dis Colon Rectum 48(12):2313-2316, 2005
30. Friedman DR, Wolfsthal SD: Cocaine-induced pseudovasculitis. Mayo Clin Proc 80(5):671-673, 2005
31. Hofbauer GF, Hafner J, Trueb RM: Urticarial vasculitis following
cocaine use.
Br J Dermatol 141(3):600-601, 1999
32. Orriols R et al: Cocaine-induced Churg-Strauss vasculitis. Eur Respir J 9(1):175-177, 1996
33. Balbir-Gurman A, Braun-Moscovici Y, Nahir AM: Cocaine-Induced raynaud's phenomenon and ischaemic finger necrosis. Clin Rheumatol 20(5):376-378, 2001
34. Noel B:
Cocaine and arsenic-induced Raynaud's phenomenon.
Clin Rheumatol 21(4):343-344, 2002
35. Brust JC: Vasculitis owing to substance abuse. Neurol Clin 15(4):945-957, 1997
36. Chevalier X et al: Schoenlein-Henoch purpura with necrotizing vasculitis after
cocaine snorting.
Clin Nephrol 43(5):348-349, 1995
37. Bozkurt AK: The role of
cocaine in the etiology of Buerger disease is questionable.
Arch Intern Med 161(3):486, 2001
38. Marder VJ, Mellinghoff IK:
Cocaine and Buerger disease: Is there a pathogenetic association?
Arch Intern Med 160(13):2057-2060, 2000
39. Rhodes T, et al: Crack-heroin speedball injection and its implications for vein care: Qualitative study. Addiction 102(11):1782-1790, 2007
40. Ciccarone D, Bourgois P: Explaining the geographical variation of HIV among injection drug users in the United States. Subst Use Misuse 38(14):2049-2063, 2003
41. Tyndall MW et al: Intensive injection
cocaine use as the primary risk factor in the Vancouver HIV-1 epidemic.
AIDS 17(6):887-893, 2003
42. Blanksma CJ, Brand HS:
Cocaine abuse: Orofacial manifestations and implications for dental treatment.
Int Dent J 55(6):365-369, 2005
43. Kapila YL, Kashani H: Cocaine-associated rapid gingival recession and dental erosion. A case report. J Periodontol 68(5):485-488, 1997
44. Faruque S, et al: Crack
cocaine smoking and oral sores in three inner-city neighborhoods.
J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 13(1):87-92, 1996
45. Sastry RC, Lee D, Har-El G: Palate perforation from
cocaine abuse.
Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 116(4):565-566, 1997
46. Mattson-Gates G, Jabs AD, Hugo NE: Perforation of the hard palate associated with
cocaine abuse.
Ann Plast Surg 26(5):466-468, 1991
47. Mari A, et al: Nasal
cocaine abuse and centrofacial destructive process: Report of three cases including treatment.
Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 93(4):435-439, 2002
48. Deutsch HL, Millard DR Jr: A new
cocaine abuse complex. Involvement of nose, septum, palate, and pharynx.
Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 115(2):235-237, 1989
49. Villa PD: Midfacial complications of prolonged
cocaine snorting.
J Can Dent Assoc 65(4):218-223, 1999
50. Osborne R, et al: Adult supraglottitis subsequent to smoking crack
cocaine.
Ear Nose Throat J 82(1):53-55, 2003
51. Sachs R, Zagelbaum BM, Hersh PS: Corneal complications associated with the use of crack
cocaine.
Ophthalmology 100(2):187-191, 1993
52. Schwartz RH, et al: Nasal symptoms associated with
cocaine abuse during adolescence.
Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 115(1):63-64, 1989
53. Snyderman C et al: Crack
cocaine burns of the larynx.
Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 117(7):792-795, 1991
54. Lu LK, High WA: Acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis caused by illicit street drugs? Arch Dermatol 143(3):430-431, 2007
55. Hofbauer GF, Burg G, Nestle FO: Cocaine-related Stevens-Johnson syndrome. Dermatology 201(3):258-260, 2000
56. Wolgin DL, Hertz JM: Effects of acute and chronic
cocaine on milk intake, body weight, and activity in bottle- and cannula-fed rats.
Behav Pharmacol 6(7):746-753, 1995
57. Brady KT et al: Cocaine-induced psychosis. J Clin Psychiatry 52(12):509-512, 1991
58. Zhu NY, Legatt DF, Turner AR: Agranulocytosis after consumption of
cocaine adulterated with levamisole.
Ann Intern Med 150(4):287-289, 2009
59. Kinzie E. Levamisole found in patients using
cocaine.
Ann Emerg Med 53(4):546-547, 2009
60. Darke S, Ross J, Kaye S: Physical injecting sites among injecting drug users in Sydney, Australia.
Drug Alcohol Depend 62(1):77-82, 2001
61. Rathod NH, de Alarcon R, Thomson IG: Signs of heroin usage detected by drug users and their parents. Lancet 2(7531):1411-1414, 1967
62. Young AW Jr, Rosenberg FR: Cutaneous stigmas of heroin addiction. Arch Dermatol 104(1):80-86, 1971
63. Shuster MM, Lewin ML: Needle tracks in narcotic addicts. N Y State J Med 68(24):3129-3134, 1968
64. Redmond WJ. Heroin adulterants and skin disease. Arch Dermatol 115(1):111, 1979
65. Neviaser RJ, Butterfield WC, Wieche DR: The puffy hand of drug addiction: A study of the pathogenesis. J Bone Joint Surg Am 54(3):629-633, 1972
66. Heng MC, Feinberg M, Haberfelde G: Erythematous cutaneous nodules caused by adulterated
cocaine.
J Am Acad Dermatol 21(3 Pt 1):570-572, 1989
67. Rosen VJ. Cutaneous manifestations of drug abuse by parenteral injections. Am J Dermatopathol 7(1):79-83, 1985
68. Passaro DJ, et al: Wound botulism associated with black tar heroin among injecting drug users. JAMA 279(11):859-863, 1998
69. Callahan TE, Schecter WP, Horn JK: Necrotizing soft tissue infection masquerading as cutaneous abcess following illicit drug injection. Arch Surg 133(8):812-817; discussion 817-819, 1998
70. Chen JL, Fullerton KE, Flynn NM: Necrotizing fasciitis associated with injection drug use. Clin Infect Dis 33(1):6-15, 2001
71. Haverkos HW, Lange WR: From the
Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration. Serious infections other than human immunodeficiency virus among intravenous drug abusers.
J Infect Dis 161(5):894-902, 1990
72. Dunne JH, Johnson WC: Necrotizing skin lesions in heroin addicts. Arch Dermatol 105(4):544-547, 1972
73. Mitchell PA, Pons PT: Wound botulism associated with black tar heroin and lower extremity cellulitis. J Emerg Med 20(4):371-375, 2001
74. Abdulla A, Yee L: The clinical spectrum of Clostridium sordellii bacteraemia: Two case reports and a review of the literature. J Clin Pathol 53(9):709-712, 2000
75. McGregor JA et al: Maternal deaths associated with Clostridium sordellii infection. Am J Obstet Gynecol 161(4):987-995, 1989
76. Sinave C et al: Toxic shock syndrome due to Clostridium sordellii: A dramatic postpartum and postabortion disease. Clin Infect Dis 35(11):1441-1443, 2002
77. Tuazon CU, Hill R, Sheagren JN: Microbiologic study of street heroin and injection paraphernalia. J Infect Dis 129(3):327-329, 1974
78. Bisbe J et al: Disseminated candidiasis in addicts who use brown heroin: Report of 83 cases and review. Clin Infect Dis 15(6):910-923, 1992
79. Perlman DC et al: “Shotgunning” as an illicit drug smoking practice. J Subst Abuse Treat 14(1):3-9, 1997
80. Weidman AI, Fellner MJ: Cutaneous manifestations of heroin and other addictive drugs. Study and analysis. N Y State J Med 71(22):2643-2646, 1971
81. Llibre LM, et al: [Lyell's syndrome induced by heroin contaminants]. Med Clin (Barc) 94(20):799, 1990
82. Neugarten J et al: Amyloidosis in subcutaneous heroin abusers (“skin poppers' amyloidosis”). Am J Med 81(4):635-640, 1986
83. Tossmann P, Boldt S, Tensil MD: The use of drugs within the techno party scene in European metropolitan cities. Eur Addict Res 7(1):2-23, 2001
84. Sulzer D et al: Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: A review. Prog Neurobiol 75(6):406-433, 2005
85. Klasser GD, Epstein J:
Methamphetamine and its impact on dental care.
J Can Dent Assoc 71(10):759-762, 2005
86. Cook HA, et al: Heterosexual transmission of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infect Dis 44(3):410-413, 2007
87. Hamamoto DT, Rhodus NL:
Methamphetamine abuse and dentistry.
Oral Dis 15(1):27-37, 2009
88. Kratofil PH, Baberg HT, Dimsdale JE: Self-mutilation and severe self-injurious behavior associated with
amphetamine psychosis.
Gen Hosp Psychiatry 18(2):117-120, 1996
89. Sanchez-Morillas L et al: Systemic dermatitis due to tetrazepam. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 18(5):404-406, 2008
90. Thomas E et al: Acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis due to tetrazepam. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 18(2):119-122, 2008
91. Amichai B, Grunwald MH: Erythema multiforme due to clonazepam—supportive evidence from the macrophage migration inhibition factor test. Clin Exp Dermatol 23(5):206-207, 1998
92. Kiraly CL et al: Effect of androgenic and anabolic steroids on the sebaceous gland in power athletes. Acta Derm Venereol 67(1):36-40, 1987
93. Scott MJ 3rd, Scott AM: Effects of anabolic-androgenic steroids on the pilosebaceous unit. Cutis 50(2):113-116, 1992
94. Strauss RH, Liggett MT, Lanese RR: Anabolic steroid use and perceived effects in ten weight-trained women athletes. JAMA 253(19):2871-2873, 1985
95. Maravelias C et al: Adverse effects of anabolic steroids in athletes. A constant threat. Toxicol Lett 158(3):167-175, 2005
96. Evans NA. Current concepts in anabolic-androgenic steroids. Am J Sports Med 32(2):534-542, 2004
97. Scott MJ Jr, Scott MJ 3rd: Dermatologists and anabolic-androgenic drug abuse. Cutis 44(1):30-35, 1989
98. Hartgens F, Kuipers H: Effects of androgenic-anabolic steroids in athletes. Sports Med 34(8):513-554, 2004
99. Al-Ismail K et al: Gluteal mass in a bodybuilder: Radiological depiction of a complication of anabolic steroid use. Eur Radiol 12(6):1366-1369, 2002
100. Weinreb I, Goldblum JR, Rubin BP: Factitial soft tissue pseudotumor due to injection of anabolic steroids: A report of 3 cases in 2 patients. Hum Pathol 41(3):452-455, 2010
101. Farkash U, Shabshin N, Pritsch Perry M: Rhabdomyolysis of the deltoid muscle in a bodybuilder using anabolic-androgenic steroids: A case report. J Athl Train 44(1):98-100, 2009
102. Syed SP et al: Anabolic steroids causing growth of benign tumors: Androgen receptor in angiolipomas. J Am Acad Dermatol 57(5):899-900, 2007
103. Lane PR et al: Acute hereditary coproporphyria induced by the androgenic/anabolic steroid methandrostenolone (Dianabol). J Am Acad Dermatol 30(2 Pt 2):308-312, 1994
104. Waeber B et al: Skin blood flow and cigarette smoking: The role of
vasopressin.
Clin Exp Hypertens A 6(10-11):2003-2006, 1984
105. Lefkowitz RJ: Editorial: Smoking, catecholamines, and the heart. N Engl J Med 295(11):615-616, 1976
106. Koch A et al: Acute cardiovascular reactions after cigarette smoking. Atherosclerosis 35(1):67-75, 1980
107. Sarin CL, Austin JC, Nickel WO: Effects of smoking on digital blood-flow velocity. JAMA 229(10):1327-1328, 1974
108. Shepherd JT: Effect of cigarette-smoking on blood flow through the hand. Br Med J 2(4738):1007-1010, 1951
109. Benowitz NL et al: Interindividual variability in the metabolism and cardiovascular effects of
nicotine in man.
J Pharmacol Exp Ther 221(2):368-372, 1982
110. Aronow WS: Editorial: Smoking, carbon monoxide, and coronary heart disease. Circulation 48(6):1169-1172, 1973
111. Davis JW et al: Effects of tobacco and non-tobacco cigarette smoking on endothelium and platelets. Clin Pharmacol Ther 37(5):529-533, 1985
112. Dintenfass L. Elevation of blood viscosity, aggregation of red cells, haematocrit values and fibrinogen levels with cigarette smokers. Med J Aust 1(20):617-620, 1975
113. Mikhailidis DP, et al: Cigarette smoking inhibits prostacyclin formation. Lancet 2(8350):627-628, 1983
114. Rees TD, Liverett DM, Guy CL: The effect of cigarette smoking on skin-flap survival in the face lift patient. Plast Reconstr Surg 73(6):911-915, 1984
115. Siana JE, Rex S, Gottrup F: The effect of cigarette smoking on wound healing. Scand J Plast Reconstr Surg Hand Surg 23(3):207-209, 1989
116. Hunt TK, Pai MP: The effect of varying ambient
oxygen tensions on wound metabolism and
collagen synthesis.
Surg Gynecol Obstet 135(4):561-567, 1972
117. Laurent P, Janoff A, Kagan HM: Cigarette smoke blocks cross-linking of elastin in vitro. Am Rev Respir Dis 127(2):189-192, 1983
118. Verghese A et al: The harlequin nail. A marker for smoking cessation. Chest 97(1):236-238, 1990
119. Saietz L: Prevalence of leukokeratosis nicotina palati among 3,819 danes. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 3(2):80-85, 1975
120. Pindborg JJ et al: Frequency of Oral Carcinoma, Leukoplakia, Leukokeratosis, Leukoedema, Submucous Fibrosis, and Lichen Planus in 10,000 Indians in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India; Preliminary Report. J Dent Res 44:61, 1965
121. Farman AG, Van Wyk CW: Leukokeratosis nicotina glossi-smokers' tongue. Int J Oral Surg 6(6):340-347, 1977
122. Axell T, Hedin CA: Epidemiologic study of excessive oral melanin pigmentation with special reference to the influence of tobacco habits. Scand J Dent Res 90(6):434-442, 1982
123. Mesa ML et al: Oral warty dyskeratoma. Cutis 33(3):293-294, 296, 1984
124. Winn DM: Smokeless tobacco and cancer: The epidemiologic evidence. CA Cancer J Clin 38(4):236-243, 1988
125. Gupta PC, Mehta FS, Pindborg JJ: Mortality among reverse chutta smokers in south India. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 289(6449):865-866, 1984
126. Gupta PC et al: Mortality experience in relation to tobacco chewing and smoking habits from a 10-year follow-up study in Ernakulam District, Kerala. Int J Epidemiol 13(2):184-187, 1984
127. Christen AG: The impact of tobacco use and cessation on oral and dental diseases and conditions. Am J Med 93(1A):25S-31S, 1992
128. Wynder EL, Hoffmann D: Experimental tobacco carcinogenesis. Adv Cancer Res 8:249-453, 1964
129. Carmella SG et al: Mass spectrometric analysis of tobacco-specific nitrosamine hemoglobin adducts in snuff dippers, smokers, and nonsmokers. Cancer Res 50(17):5438-5445, 1990
130. Thomas WR, Holt PG, Keast D: Recovery of immune system after cigarette smoking. Nature 248(446):358-359, 1974
131. Holt PG, Thomas WR, Keast D: Smoking and immunity. Lancet 1(7815):1316, 1973
132. Hersey P, Prendergast D, Edwards A: Effects of cigarette smoking on the immune system. Follow-up studies in normal subjects after cessation of smoking. Med J Aust 2(9):425-429, 1983
133. Rigel DS et al: Cigarette smoking and malignant melanoma. Prognostic implications. J Dermatol Surg Oncol 7(11):889-891, 1981
134. Koh HK et al: Cigarette smoking and malignant melanoma. Prognostic implications. Cancer 53(11):2570-2573, 1984
135. Mills CM et al: Smoking habits in psoriasis: A case control study. Br J Dermatol 127(1):18-21, 1992
136. Naldi L et al: Family history, smoking habits,
alcohol consumption and risk of psoriasis.
Br J Dermatol 127(3):212-217, 1992
137. Transdermal
nicotine for smoking cessation. Six-month results from two multicenter controlled clinical trials. Transdermal
Nicotine Study Group.
JAMA 266(22):3133-3138, 1991
138. Nakamura T: Tobacco dermatitis in Japanese harvesters. Contact Dermatitis 10(5):310, 1984
139. Goncalo M, Couto J, Goncalo S: Allergic contact dermatitis from Nicotiana tabacum. Contact Dermatitis 22(3):188-189, 1990
140. Singh G: Betel chewer's perleche. Br J Dermatol 89(1):98, 1973
141. Zain RB et al: Oral mucosal lesions associated with betel quid, areca nut and tobacco chewing habits: Consensus from a workshop held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, November 25–27, 1996. J Oral Pathol Med 28(1):1-4, 1999
142. Daftary DK et al: An oral lichen planus-like lesion in Indian betel-tobacco chewers. Scand J Dent Res 88(3):244-249, 1980
143. Wei FC et al: Bilateral small radial forearm flaps for the reconstruction of buccal mucosa after surgical release of submucosal fibrosis: A new, reliable approach. Plast Reconstr Surg 107(7):1679-1683, 2001
144. Sankaranarayanan R et al: Risk factors for cancer of the buccal and labial mucosa in Kerala, southern India. J Epidemiol Community Health 44(4):286-292, 1990
145. Pindborg JJ et al: Oral submucous fibrosis as a precancerous condition. Scand J Dent Res 92(3):224-229, 1984
146. Pindborg JJ: Pathology of oral leukoplakia. Am J Dermatopathol 2(3):277-278, 1980
147. McGurk M, Craig GT: Oral submucous fibrosis: Two cases of malignant transformation in Asian immigrants to the United Kingdom. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg 22(1):56-64, 1984
148. Su CC et al: Distinctive features of oral cancer in Changhua County: High incidence, buccal mucosa preponderance, and a close relation to betel quid chewing habit. J Formos Med Assoc 106(3):225-233, 2007
149. Bergstein JM et al: Soft tissue abscesses associated with parenteral drug abuse: Presentation, microbiology, and treatment. Am Surg 61(12):1105-1108, 1995
150. Gonzalez MH et al: Abscesses of the upper extremity from drug abuse by injection. J Hand Surg Am 18(5):868-870, 1993
151. Smith DJ Jr et al: Drug injection injuries of the upper extremity. Ann Plast Surg 22(1):19-24, 1989
152. Vollum DI: Skin lesions in drug addicts. Br Med J 2(5710):647-650, 1970
153. Funk L, Grover D, de Silva H: Compartment syndrome of the hand following intra-arterial injection of heroin. J Hand Surg Br 24(3):366-367, 1999
154. Klabacha ME et al: Inadvertent intraradial arterial injection of
cocaine.
Ann Plast Surg 13(1):60-62, 1984
155. Pieper B, Templin T: Chronic venous insufficiency in persons with a history of injection drug use. Res Nurs Health 24(5):423-432, 2001
156. Pieper B: A retrospective analysis of venous ulcer healing in current and former users of injected drugs. J Wound Ostomy Continence Nurs 23(6):291-296, 1996
157. Burris S et al: Physician prescribing of sterile injection equipment to prevent HIV infection: Time for action. Ann Intern Med 133(3):218-226, 2000
158. Administration USSAaMHS:
Number of Emergency Department Visits Associated with Various Drugs in 2001, 2001,
http://thedea.org/statistics.html, accessed Apr 15, 2010
160. Labcorp I: Drugs of Abuse Reference Guide, 2004, https://www.labcorp.com/pdf/doa_reference_guide.pdf, accessed May 1, 2010