Abbreviations
AC: adenylyl cyclase
ACE: angiotensin-converting enzyme
ACh: acetylcholine
AKAP: A-kinase anchoring protein
AMPA: α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid
AMPK: AMP-activated protein kinase
AngII: angiotensin II
ANP: atrial natriuretic peptide
AP-1: activator protein-1 (transcription factor)
Apaf-1: apoptotic activating protease factor 1
ATG: autophagy gene
AT1R: angiotensin subtype 1 receptor
BNP: brain natriuretic peptide
CaM: calmodulin
CAR: constitutive androstane receptor
CNP: C-type natriuretic peptide
CYP: cytochrome P450
DAG: diacylglycerol
DHFR: dihydrofolate reductase
EC50: half-maximally effective concentration
ED50: half-maximally effective dose
EGF: epidermal growth factor
eNOS: endothelial NOS (NOS3)
EPAC: exchange protein activated by cyclic AMP
ER: endoplasmic reticulum
FBP: fructose 1,6-bisphosphate
FXR: farnesoid X receptor
GABA: γ-aminobutyric acid
GC: guanylyl cyclase
GEF: guanine nucleotide exchange factor
GnRH: gonadotropin-releasing hormone
GPCR: G protein-coupled receptor
GRK: GPCR kinase
HMG-CoA: hydroxymethylglutaryl–coenzyme A
HRE: hormone response element
5HT: 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin)
IFN: interferon
IL: interleukin
iNOS: inducible NOS (NOS2)
IP3: inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate
JAK: Janus kinase
JNK: c-Jun N-terminal kinase
Ki: affinity of a competitive antagonist
Kir: inward rectifying K+ channel
LD50: half-maximal lethal dose
LKB1: liver kinase B1
LXR: liver X receptor
MAPK: mitogen-activated protein kinase
MLCK: myosin light chain kinase
mTOR: mechanistic or mammalian target of rapamycin, a protein kinase
mTORC: mechanistic or mammalian target of rapamycin complex
NAM: negative allosteric modulator
NE: norepinephrine
NF-κB: nuclear factor-κB
NMDA: N-methyl-D-aspartate
nNOS: neuronal NOS
NO: nitric oxide
NOS: NO synthase
NPR: natriuretic peptide receptor
NSAID: nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug
PAMP: pathogen-associated molecular pattern
PDE: cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase
PAM: positive allosteric modulator
PDGF: platelet-derived growth factor
PI3K: phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase
PIP2: phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate
PK: protein kinase, e.g., PKA, PKB (also known as Akt), PKC
PLC: phospholipase C
PPAR: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor
PTB: phosphotyrosine-binding
PXR: pregnane X receptor
RAR: retinoic acid receptor
RGS: regulator of G protein signaling
RhoGEF: RhoA guanine nucleotide exchange factor
RIP1: receptor interacting protein 1
ROCK: Rho-associated protein kinase
RXR: retinoid X receptor
SERM: selective estrogen receptor modulator
sGC: soluble guanylyl cyclase
SH2: Src homology 2
SMAC: second mitochondria-derived activator of caspase
SMN1: survival motor neuron protein
STAT: signal transducer and activator of transcription
TGF-β: transforming growth factor β
TLR: toll-like receptor
TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor α
TNFR: TNF-α receptor
TOR: target of rapamycin
TRAIL: TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand
TRP: transient receptor potential
VEGF: vascular endothelial growth factor
VSMC: vascular smooth muscle cell
Pharmacodynamics is the study of the biochemical, cellular, and physiological actions of drugs, including the molecular mechanisms by which these actions are achieved. Most drugs are small molecules that interact with macromolecular entities, or drug targets, intrinsic to the body or to pathogens. Drug targets include receptors for endocrine and paracrine factors, enzymes, voltage-gated ion channels, membrane transporters, and, for pathogens chiefly, structures relevant to cell viability and replication. As such, targets can be located anywhere on or within a cell, including the cell-surface membrane, cytosol, and ...