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Fetopelvic disproportion arises from diminished pelvic capacity, from abnormal fetal size or presentation, or more usually from both. The pelvic inlet, midpelvis, or pelvic outlet may be contracted solely or in combination. Any contraction of the pelvic diameters that diminishes pelvic capacity can create dystocia during labor. Normal pelvic dimensions are additionally discussed and illustrated in Chapter 2 (Planes and Diameters of the Pelvis).
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Using clinical measures, it is important to identify the shortest anteroposterior diameter through which the fetal head must pass. Before labor, the fetal biparietal diameter averages from 9.5 to as much as 9.8 cm. Therefore, it might prove difficult or even impossible for some fetuses to pass through a pelvic inlet that has an anteroposterior diameter <10 cm. Mengert (1948) and Kaltreider (1952), employing x-ray pelvimetry, demonstrated that the incidence of difficult deliveries rises when either the anteroposterior diameter of the inlet is <10 cm or the transverse diameter is <12 cm. As expected, when both diameters are contracted, dystocia rates are much greater than when only one is contracted. Either of these measures is used to consider a pelvis contracted.
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The anteroposterior diameter of the inlet, which is the obstetrical conjugate, is commonly approximated by manually measuring the diagonal conjugate, which is approximately 1.5 cm greater. Ascertainment of these measures is described in Chapter 2 (Planes and Diameters of the Pelvis). Therefore, inlet contraction usually is defined as a diagonal conjugate <11.5 cm.
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A small woman is likely to have a small pelvis, but she is also likely to have a small neonate. Thoms (1937) studied 362 nulliparas and found that the mean birthweight of their offspring was significantly lower—280 g—in women with a small pelvis than in those with a medium or large pelvis.
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Normally, cervical dilation is aided by hydrostatic action of the unruptured membranes or after their rupture, by direct application of the presenting part against the cervix. In contracted pelves, however, because the head is arrested in the pelvic inlet, the entire force exerted by the uterus acts directly on the portion of membranes that contact the dilating cervix. Consequently, early spontaneous rupture of the membranes is more likely.
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After membrane rupture, absent pressure by the head against the cervix and lower uterine segment predisposes to less effective contractions. Hence, further dilation may proceed very slowly or not at all. Cibils and Hendricks (1965) reported that the mechanical adaptation of the fetal passenger to the bony passage plays an important part in determining the efficiency of contractions. The better the adaptation, the more efficient the contractions. Thus, cervical response to labor provides a prognostic view of labor outcome in women with inlet contraction.
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A contracted inlet also plays an important part in the production of abnormal presentations. In nulliparas with normal pelvic capacity, the presenting part at term commonly descends into the pelvic cavity before labor onset. When the inlet is contracted considerably or there is marked asynclitism, descent usually does not take place until after labor onset, if at all. Cephalic presentations still predominate, but the head floats freely over the pelvic inlet or rests more laterally in one of the iliac fossae. Accordingly, very slight influences may cause the fetus to assume other presentations. In women with contracted pelves, face and shoulder presentations are encountered three times more frequently, and the cord prolapses four to six times more often.
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This finding is more common than inlet contraction. It frequently causes transverse arrest of the fetal head, which potentially can lead to a difficult midforceps operation or to cesarean delivery.
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The obstetrical plane of the midpelvis extends from the inferior margin of the symphysis pubis through the ischial spines and touches the sacrum near the junction of the fourth and fifth vertebrae. A transverse line theoretically connecting the ischial spines divides the midpelvis into anterior and posterior portions (Fig. 2-16). The former is bounded anteriorly by the lower border of the symphysis pubis and laterally by the ischiopubic rami. The posterior portion is bounded dorsally by the sacrum and laterally by the sacrospinous ligaments, forming the lower limits of the sacrosciatic notch.
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Average midpelvis measurements are as follows: transverse, or interischial spinous, 10.5 cm; anteroposterior, from the lower border of the symphysis pubis to the junction of S4–5, 11.5 cm; and posterior sagittal, from the midpoint of the interspinous line to the same point on the sacrum, 5 cm. The definition of midpelvic contractions has not been established with the same precision possible for inlet contractions. Even so, the midpelvis is likely contracted when the sum of the interspinous and posterior sagittal diameters of the midpelvis—normally, 10.5 plus 5 cm, or 15.5 cm—falls to 13.5 cm or less. This concept was emphasized by Chen and Huang (1982) in evaluating possible midpelvic contraction. Midpelvic contraction is suspected whenever the interspinous diameter is <10 cm. When it measures <8 cm, the midpelvis is contracted.
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Although no precise manual method permits measure of midpelvic dimensions, a suggestion of contraction sometimes can be inferred if the spines are prominent, the pelvic sidewalls converge, or the sacrosciatic notch is narrow. Moreover, Eller and Mengert (1947) noted that the relationship between the intertuberous and interspinous diameters of the ischium is sufficiently constant that narrowing of the interspinous diameter can be anticipated when the intertuberous diameter is narrow. A normal intertuberous diameter, however, does not always exclude a narrow interspinous diameter.
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This finding usually is defined as an interischial tuberous diameter of 8 cm or less. The pelvic outlet may be roughly likened to two triangles, with the interischial tuberous diameter constituting the base of both. The sides of the anterior triangle are the pubic rami, and its apex is the inferoposterior surface of the symphysis pubis. The posterior triangle has no bony sides but is limited at its apex by the tip of the last sacral vertebra—not the tip of the coccyx. Diminution of the intertuberous diameter with consequent narrowing of the anterior triangle must inevitably force the fetal head posteriorly. Floberg and associates (1987) reported that outlet contractions were found in almost 1 percent of more than 1400 unselected nulliparas with term pregnancies. A contracted outlet may cause dystocia not so much by itself but by an often-associated midpelvic contraction. Outlet contraction without concomitant midplane contraction is rare.
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Although the disproportion between the fetal head and the pelvic outlet is not sufficiently great to give rise to severe dystocia, it may play an important part in perineal tears. With increased narrowing of the pubic arch, the occiput cannot emerge directly beneath the symphysis pubis but is forced farther down upon the ischiopubic rami. The perineum, consequently, becomes increasingly distended and thus exposed to risk of laceration.
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Vallier (2012) reviewed experiences with pelvic fractures and pregnancy. Trauma from automobile collisions was the most common cause. Moreover, they note that fracture pattern, minor malalignment, and retained hardware are not absolute indications for cesarean delivery. In determining suitability for vaginal delivery, fracture healing requires 8 to 12 weeks and thus recent fracture merits cesarean delivery (Amorosa, 2013). A history of pelvic fracture warrants careful review of previous radiographs and possible imaging pelvimetry later in pregnancy.
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Pelvic Capacity Estimation
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The techniques for clinical evaluation using digital examination of the bony pelvis during labor are described in detail in Chapter 2 (Planes and Diameters of the Pelvis). The value of radiological imaging to assess pelvic capacity has also been examined. First, with x-ray pelvimetry alone, the prognosis for successful vaginal delivery in any given pregnancy with cephalic presentation cannot be established (Mengert, 1948). Similarly, one systematic review found insufficient evidence to support the use of x-ray pelvimetry with cephalic presentations (Pattinson, 2017).
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Advantages of pelvimetry with computed tomography (CT) compared with those of conventional x-ray pelvimetry include greater accuracy and easier performance. With either method, costs are comparable, and x-ray exposure is small (Chap. 46, X-Ray Dosimetry). Depending on the machine and technique employed, fetal doses with CT pelvimetry may range from 250 to 1500 mrad (Moore, 1989).
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Advantages of magnetic resonance (MR) pelvimetry include lack of ionizing radiation, accurate measurements, complete fetal imaging, and the potential for evaluating soft tissue dystocia (McCarthy, 1986; Stark, 1985). Zaretsky and colleagues (2005) used MR imaging to measure pelvic and fetal head volume to identify those women at greatest risk of undergoing cesarean delivery for dystocia. Significant associations were found between some of the measures and cesarean delivery for dystocia. However, these researchers could not with accuracy predict which individual woman would require cesarean delivery. Others have reported similar findings (Sporri, 1997).
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Fetal Body and Head Size
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Fetal size alone is seldom a suitable explanation for failed labor. Even with current technology, a fetal size threshold to predict fetopelvic disproportion is still elusive. Most cases of disproportion arise in fetuses whose weight is well within the range of the general obstetrical population. As shown in Figure 23-5, two thirds of neonates who required cesarean delivery after failed forceps delivery weighed <3700 g. Thus, other factors—for example, malposition of the head—obstruct fetal passage through the birth canal. These include asynclitism, occiput posterior position, and face or brow presentation.
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For fetal head size estimation, clinical and radiographical methods to predict fetopelvic disproportion have proved disappointing. Mueller (1885) and Hillis (1930) described a clinical maneuver to predict disproportion. The fetal brow and the suboccipital region are grasped through the abdominal wall with the fingers, and firm pressure is directed downward in the axis of the inlet. If no disproportion exists, the head readily enters the pelvis, and vaginal delivery can be predicted. Thorp and coworkers (1993) performed a prospective evaluation of this Mueller-Hillis maneuver. They found no relationship between failed descent during the maneuver and subsequent labor dystocia.
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Measurements of fetal head diameters using plain radiographical techniques are not used because of parallax distortions. The biparietal diameter and head circumference can be measured sonographically, and investigators have attempted to use this information in the management of dystocia. Thurnau and colleagues (1991) used the fetal-pelvic index to identify labor complications. Unfortunately, the sensitivity of such measurements to predict cephalopelvic disproportion is poor (Ferguson, 1998; Korhonen, 2015). We believe that no current method of measurement satisfactorily predicts fetopelvic disproportion based on head size.
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With this presentation, the neck is hyperextended so that the occiput is in contact with the fetal back, and the chin (mentum) is presenting (Fig. 23-6). The fetal face may present with the chin (mentum) anteriorly or posteriorly, relative to the maternal symphysis pubis (Chap. 22, Diagnosis). Although some mentum posterior presentations persist, most convert spontaneously to anterior even in late labor (Duff, 1981). If not, the fetal brow (bregma) is pressed against the maternal symphysis pubis. This position precludes flexion of the fetal head necessary to negotiate the birth canal. Thus, a mentum posterior presentation is undeliverable except with a very preterm fetus.
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Face presentation is diagnosed by vaginal examination and palpation of facial features. A breech may be mistaken for a face presentation. Namely, the anus may be mistaken for the mouth, and the ischial tuberosities for the malar prominences. Digital differentiation is described in Chapter 28 (Diagnosis). Radiographically, demonstration of the hyperextended head with the facial bones at or below the pelvic inlet is characteristic.
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Cruikshank and White (1973) reported an incidence of 1 in 600, or 0.17 percent. As shown in Table 22-1, among more than 70,000 singleton newborns delivered at Parkland Hospital, approximately 1 in 2000 had a face presentation at delivery.
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Causes of face presentations are numerous and include conditions that favor extension or prevent head flexion. Preterm fetuses, with their smaller head dimensions, can engage before conversion to vertex position (Shaffer, 2006). In exceptional instances, marked enlargement of the neck or coils of cord around the neck may cause extension. Bashiri and associates (2008) reported that fetal malformations and hydramnios were risk factors for face or brow presentations. Anencephalic fetuses naturally present by the face.
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Extended neck positions develop more frequently when the pelvis is contracted or the fetus is very large. In a series of 141 face presentations studied by Hellman and coworkers (1950), the incidence of inlet contraction was 40 percent. This high incidence of pelvic contraction should be kept in mind when considering management.
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High parity is a predisposing factor for face presentation (Fuchs, 1985). In these cases, a pendulous abdomen permits the back of the fetus to sag forward or laterally, often in the same direction in which the occiput points. This promotes extension of the cervical and thoracic spine.
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Face presentations rarely are observed above the pelvic inlet. Instead, the brow generally presents early and is usually converted to present the face after further extension of the neck during descent. The mechanism of labor in these cases consists of the cardinal movements of descent, internal rotation, and flexion, and the accessory movements of extension and external rotation (Fig. 23-7). Descent is brought about by the same factors as in cephalic presentations. Extension results from the relation of the fetal body to the deflected head, which is converted into a two-armed lever, the longer arm of which extends from the occipital condyles to the occiput. When resistance is encountered, the occiput must be pushed toward the back of the fetus while the chin descends.
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The objective of internal rotation of the face is to bring the chin under the symphysis pubis. Only in this way can the neck traverse the posterior surface of the symphysis pubis. If the chin rotates directly posteriorly, the relatively short neck cannot span the anterior surface of the sacrum, which measures about 12 cm in length. Moreover, the fetal brow (bregma) is pressed against the maternal symphysis pubis. This position precludes flexion necessary to negotiate the birth canal. Hence, as discussed earlier, birth of the head from a mentum posterior position is impossible unless the shoulders enter the pelvis at the same time, an event that is impossible except when the fetus is extremely small or macerated. Internal rotation results from the same factors as in vertex presentations.
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After anterior rotation and descent, the chin and mouth appear at the vulva, the undersurface of the chin presses against the symphysis, and the head is delivered by flexion. The nose, eyes, brow (bregma), and occiput then appear in succession over the anterior margin of the perineum. After birth of the head, the occiput sags backward toward the anus. Next, the chin rotates externally to the side toward which it was originally directed, and the shoulders are born as in cephalic presentations.
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Edema may sometimes significantly distort the face. At the same time, the skull undergoes considerable molding, manifested by an increase in length of the occipitomental diameter of the head.
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In the absence of a contracted pelvis and with effective labor, successful vaginal delivery usually will follow. Fetal heart rate monitoring is probably better done with external devices to avoid damage to the face and eyes. Because face presentations among term-size fetuses are more common when there is some degree of pelvic inlet contraction, cesarean delivery frequently is indicated. Attempts to convert a face presentation manually into a vertex presentation, manual or forceps rotation of a persistently posterior chin to a mentum anterior position, and internal podalic version and extraction are dangerous and should not be attempted. Low or outlet forceps delivery of a mentum anterior face presentation can be completed and is described in Chapter 29 (Vacuum Extraction).
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This rare presentation is diagnosed when that portion of the fetal head between the orbital ridge and the anterior fontanel presents at the pelvic inlet. As shown in Figure 23-8, the fetal head thus occupies a position midway between full flexion (occiput) and extension (face). Except when the fetal head is small or the pelvis is unusually large, engagement of the fetal head and subsequent delivery cannot take place as long as the brow presentation persists.
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The causes of persistent brow presentation are the same as those for face presentation. A brow presentation is commonly unstable and often converts to a face or an occiput presentation (Cruikshank, 1973). The presentation may be recognized by abdominal palpation when both the occiput and chin can be palpated easily, but vaginal examination is usually necessary. The frontal sutures, large anterior fontanel, orbital ridges, eyes, and root of the nose are felt on vaginal examination, but neither the mouth nor the chin is palpable.
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With a very small fetus and a large pelvis, labor is generally easy. With a larger fetus, it is usually difficult. This is because engagement is impossible until there is marked molding that shortens the occipitomental diameter or more commonly, until the neck either flexes to an occiput presentation or extends to a face presentation. The considerable molding essential for vaginal delivery of a persistent brow characteristically deforms the head. The caput succedaneum is over the forehead, and it may be so extensive that identification of the brow by palpation is impossible. In these instances, the forehead is prominent and squared, and the occipitomental diameter is diminished.
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In transient brow presentations, the prognosis depends on the ultimate presentation. If the brow persists, prognosis is poor for vaginal delivery unless the fetus is small or the birth canal is large. Principles of management are the same as those for a face presentation.
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In this position, the long axis of the fetus is approximately perpendicular to that of the mother. When the long axis forms an acute angle, an oblique lie results. The latter is usually only transitory, because either a longitudinal or transverse lie commonly results when labor supervenes. For this reason, the oblique lie is called an unstable lie in Great Britain.
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In a transverse lie, the shoulder is usually positioned over the pelvic inlet. The head occupies one iliac fossa, and the breech the other. This creates a shoulder presentation in which the side of the mother on which the acromion rests determines the designation of the lie as right or left acromial. And because in either position the back may be directed anteriorly or posteriorly, superiorly or inferiorly, it is customary to distinguish varieties as dorsoanterior and dorsoposterior (Fig. 23-9).
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A transverse lie is usually recognized easily, often by inspection alone. The abdomen is unusually wide, whereas the uterine fundus extends to only slightly above the umbilicus. No fetal pole is detected in the fundus, and the ballottable head is found in one iliac fossa and the breech in the other. The position of the back is readily identifiable. When the back is anterior, a hard resistance plane extends across the front of the abdomen. When it is posterior, irregular nodulations representing fetal small parts are felt through the abdominal wall.
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On vaginal examination, in the early stages of labor, if the side of the thorax can be reached, it may be recognized by the “gridiron” feel of the ribs. With further dilation, the scapula and the clavicle are distinguished on opposite sides of the thorax. The position of the axilla indicates the side of the mother toward which the shoulder is directed.
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Transverse lie was found once in 322 singleton deliveries (0.3 percent) at both the Mayo Clinic and the University of Iowa Hospital (Cruikshank, 1973; Johnson, 1964). This is remarkably similar to the incidence at Parkland Hospital of approximately 1 in 335 singleton fetuses.
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Some of the more common causes of transverse lie include: (1) abdominal wall relaxation from high parity, (2) preterm fetus, (3) placenta previa, (4) abnormal uterine anatomy, (5) hydramnios, and (6) contracted pelvis.
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Women with four or more deliveries have a tenfold incidence of transverse lie compared with nulliparas. A relaxed and pendulous abdomen allows the uterus to fall forward, deflecting the long axis of the fetus away from the axis of the birth canal and into an oblique or transverse position. Placenta previa and pelvic contraction act similarly. A transverse or oblique lie occasionally develops in labor from an initial longitudinal position.
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Spontaneous delivery of a fully developed newborn is impossible with a persistent transverse lie. After rupture of the membranes, if labor continues, the fetal shoulder is forced into the pelvis, and the corresponding arm frequently prolapses (Fig. 23-10). After some descent, the shoulder is arrested by the margins of the pelvic inlet. As labor continues, the shoulder is impacted firmly in the upper part of the pelvis. The uterus then contracts vigorously in an unsuccessful attempt to overcome the obstacle. With time, a retraction ring rises increasingly higher and becomes more marked. With this neglected transverse lie, the uterus will eventually rupture. Even without this complication, morbidity is increased because of the frequent association with placenta previa, the increased likelihood of cord prolapse, and the necessity for major operative efforts.
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If the fetus is small—usually <800 g—and the pelvis is large, spontaneous delivery is possible despite persistence of the abnormal lie. The fetus is compressed with the head forced against its abdomen. A portion of the thoracic wall below the shoulder thus becomes the most dependent part, appearing at the vulva. The head and thorax then pass through the pelvic cavity at the same time. The fetus, which is doubled upon itself and thus sometimes referred to as conduplicato corpore, is expelled.
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Active labor in a woman with a transverse lie is usually an indication for cesarean delivery. Before labor or early in labor, with the membranes intact, attempts at external version are worthwhile in the absence of other complications. If the fetal head can be maneuvered by abdominal manipulation into the pelvis, it should be held there during the next several contractions in an attempt to fix the head in the pelvis.
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With cesarean delivery, because neither the feet nor the head of the fetus occupies the lower uterine segment, a low transverse incision into the uterus may lead to difficult fetal extraction. This is especially true of dorsoanterior presentations. Therefore, a vertical hysterotomy incision is often indicated.
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Compound Presentation
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With this, an extremity prolapses alongside the presenting part, and both present simultaneously in the pelvis (Fig. 23-11). Goplerud and Eastman (1953) identified a hand or arm prolapsed alongside the head once in every 700 deliveries. Much less common was prolapse of one or both lower extremities alongside a cephalic presentation or a hand alongside a breech. At Parkland Hospital, compound presentations were identified in only 68 of more than 70,000 singleton fetuses—an incidence of approximately 1 in 1000. Causes of compound presentations are conditions that prevent complete occlusion of the pelvic inlet by the fetal head, including preterm labor.
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In most cases, the prolapsed part should be left alone, because most often it will not interfere with labor. If the arm is prolapsed alongside the head, the condition should be observed closely to ascertain whether the arm retracts out of the way with descent of the presenting part. If it fails to retract and if it appears to prevent descent of the head, the prolapsed arm should be pushed gently upward and the head simultaneously downward by fundal pressure.
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In general, rates of perinatal mortality and morbidity are increased as a result of concomitant preterm delivery, prolapsed cord, and traumatic obstetrical procedures. Serious injury to the forearm is rare (Kwok, 2015; Tebes, 1999).