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PHYSIOLOGY OF NORMAL URINATION
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Urinary incontinence is the involuntary loss of urine that is so severe as to have social or hygienic consequences. A basic understanding of the normal physiology of urination is important to understand the potential causes of incontinence, and the various strategies for effective treatment.
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The lower urinary tract consists primarily of the bladder (detrusor muscle) and the urethra. The urethra contains two sphincters: the internal urethral sphincter (IUS), composed predominantly of smooth muscle, and the external urethral sphincter (EUS), which is primarily voluntary muscle. The detrusor muscle of the bladder is innervated predominantly by cholinergic (muscarinic) neurons from the parasympathetic nervous system, the stimulation of which leads to bladder contraction. The sympathetic nervous system innervates both the bladder and the IUS. Sympathetic innervation in the bladder is primarily β-adrenergic and leads to bladder relaxation, whereas α-adrenergic receptors predominate in the IUS, leading to sphincter contraction. Thus, in general, sympathetic stimulation promotes bladder filling (relaxation of the detrusor with contraction of the sphincter), whereas parasympathetic stimulation leads to bladder emptying (detrusor contraction and sphincter relaxation).
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The EUS, on the other hand, is striated muscle and under primarily voluntary (somatic) control. This allows for some ability to voluntarily postpone urination by tightening the sphincter and inhibiting the flow of urine. Additional voluntary control is provided by the central nervous system (CNS) through the pontine micturition center. This allows for central inhibition of the autonomic processes described earlier, and for further voluntary postponement of the need to urinate until the circumstances are more socially appropriate or until necessary facilities are available.
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The physiologic factors influencing normal urination, summarized in Table 42-1, are important considerations when discussing urinary disorders and treatment.
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Contrary to common perception, urinary incontinence is not inevitable with aging. Most elderly patients remain continent throughout their lifetimes, and a complaint of incontinence at any age should receive a thorough evaluation and not be dismissed as “normal for age.” Nonetheless, many common age-related changes predispose elderly patients to incontinence and increase the likelihood of its development with advancing age.
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The frequency of involuntary bladder contractions (detrusor hyperactivity) increases in both men and women with aging. In addition, total bladder capacity decreases, causing the voiding urge to occur at lower volumes. Bladder contractility decreases, leading to increased postvoid residuals and increased sensation of urgency or fullness. Elderly patients excrete a larger percentage of their fluid ...